Cluster size in Disk/SSD/Memory Storage/USB Disks

Cluster size (also called allocation unit size) in NTFS (or any filesystem) defines the smallest chunk of disk space used to store a file.

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📌 What is Cluster Size?

• If cluster size = 4 KB → even a 1 KB file will occupy 4 KB.
• If cluster size = 64 KB → even a 1 KB file will occupy 64 KB.

So:
👉 Smaller cluster size = less wasted space, but more overhead.
👉 Larger cluster size = better for large files, but wastes space with many small files.

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📊 Common NTFS Cluster Sizes

Cluster Size	Best For	Pros	Cons
4 KB (default)	General use (Windows OS, mixed files)	Standard, good balance, least wasted space	Slightly more overhead on huge files
8 KB – 16 KB	Media servers, apps with medium–large files	Less fragmentation, faster access on large files	Wastes more space on many small files
32 KB – 64 KB	Large ISO files, VMs, databases, video editing	Best performance on big sequential reads/writes	Huge wasted space on small files, not good for OS/system drives

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📌 Effects of Different Choices

1. Disk Usage Efficiency (Wasted Space)
• With small clusters (4K) → better efficiency for lots of small files.
• With large clusters (64K) → a folder with many tiny files wastes tons of space.
2. Performance
• Larger clusters = faster for large file access (e.g., copying ISO, movies).
• Smaller clusters = faster when handling many small files (system files, code projects).
3. Fragmentation
• Larger cluster size = less fragmentation (big chunks).
• Smaller clusters fragment more easily if files grow.
4. Compatibility
• Windows boot/system partitions usually require 4K clusters.
• Some apps (like SQL Server) can benefit from 64K clusters.

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✅ Recommendation

• System / OS drives → 4 KB (default)
• General-purpose storage (mixed small & large files) → 4 KB (default)
• Media/Backup drives (big files, ISOs, movies, VMs) → 64 KB cluster size
• Database / VM storage → 64 KB (if app supports it)

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⚠️ Important: Once you format with a certain cluster size, you can’t change it without reformatting.

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How much space you’d waste on your USB (say 64 GB) if you choose 4K vs 64K clusters with small files:

📊 Example Scenario

• Drive size: 64 GB ≈ 68,719,476 KB (roughly)
• File set: 10,000 files of 1 KB each (like configs, text, logs)
• File set #2: 50 large ISO files of 2 GB each

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🔹 Case 1: Small files (10,000 × 1 KB)

• Cluster size = 4 KB
• Each file takes at least 4 KB →
• 10,000 × 4 KB = 40,000 KB used (~39 MB)
• Actual data = 10,000 KB (~10 MB)
• Waste = 30 MB
• Cluster size = 64 KB
• Each file takes at least 64 KB →
• 10,000 × 64 KB = 640,000 KB (~625 MB)
• Actual data = 10,000 KB (~10 MB)
• Waste = 615 MB

⚠️ So with small files, 64 KB clusters waste ~20× more space than 4 KB.

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🔹 Case 2: Large files (50 × 2 GB ISOs)

• Cluster size = 4 KB
• Each 2 GB file = 2,097,152 KB
• Divide by 4 KB clusters = 524,288 clusters per file
• Total clusters = 26 million+ (huge overhead in cluster tracking).
• Performance slightly slower.
• Cluster size = 64 KB
• Each 2 GB file = 2,097,152 KB
• Divide by 64 KB clusters = 32,768 clusters per file
• Total clusters = ~1.6 million (much fewer).
• Faster access & less fragmentation.
• Wasted space per file = up to 63 KB max (negligible vs file size).

⚡ With large files, 64 KB clusters are much better — less metadata, faster reads/writes.

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✅ Takeaway

• If you have many small files → choose 4 KB cluster size (saves space).
• If you mainly store large files (ISOs, VMs, backups) → choose 64 KB cluster size (better speed, almost no waste).
• For general use (USB, external HDD/SSD) → stick with 4 KB (default) unless you’re sure it’s only for big files.

 

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Installing #Windows11 without any check or on #unsupported #hardware

#Windows11 installation typically requires a "compatible 64-bit CPU" and TPM 2.0 chip, leaving older computers ineligible. Nevertheless, various methods have emerged to bypass these constraints.

#Neowin highlights a more straightforward approach. On X (formerly Twitter), a user revealed an obscure yet effective method for circumventing Windows 11's hardware restrictions. It involves initiating the Windows 11 setup process using the Windows command line tool with the command "/product server." So, your command should appear as follows:

setup /product server

This discovery is being hailed as a "game-changing find" that overcomes the "artificial prerequisites" for Windows 11 installation. We can confirm its efficacy, at least with the current Canary Insider versions of #Windows11. Interestingly, while the setup indicates "Windows Server" installation, it essentially installs Windows 11 Home or Windows 11 Pro.

Notably, the post's comments mention that a Vietnamese user uncovered this method over a year ago. However, the information remained relatively obscure, likely due to it being reported solely in a Vietnamese forum.

#Windows #CLI #Commands : list of commonly used #Windows #Command Line #commands

1. cd: Change the current directory.
2. dir: List files and directories in the current directory.
3. cls: Clear the screen.
4. copy: Copy files or directories.
5. del: Delete files.
6. md/mkdir: Create a new directory.
7. rd/rmdir: Remove a directory.
8. type: Display the contents of a text file.
9. ren/rename: Rename files or directories.
10. move: Move files or directories.
11. ipconfig: Display IP configuration for all network interfaces.
12. ping: Test network connectivity to a host.
13. netstat: Display network statistics and connections.
14. tasklist: List all running processes.
15. taskkill: Terminate processes by name or process ID.
16. shutdown: Shutdown or restart the computer.
17. sfc: System File Checker, scan and repair system files.
18. chkdsk: Check and repair disk errors.
19. diskpart: Manage disk partitions and volumes.
20. format: Format a disk or volume.
21. schtasks: Schedule tasks and scripts to run at specified times.
22. systeminfo: Display system information.
23. wmic: Windows Management Instrumentation Command-line tool.
24. regedit: Registry Editor for making system changes.
25. gpupdate: Force an update of Group Policy settings.
26. net use: Connect or disconnect network shares.
27. net user: Manage user accounts.
28. net group: Manage local user groups.
29. net view: List available network resources.
30. net share: Create or manage shared resources.
31. net localgroup: Manage local groups.
32. shutdown: Shutdown or restart the computer.
33. sc: Manage Windows services.
34. assoc: Display or modify file extension associations.
35. attrib: Display or change file attributes.
36. bcdedit: Boot Configuration Data Editor.
37. cipher: Encrypt or decrypt files and folders.
38. netsh: Network Shell, configure network settings.
39. perfmon: Performance Monitor.
40. gpresult: Display Resultant Set of Policy for a user or computer.

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Installing #Windows11 without any check or on #unsupported #hardware

#Windows10 To #Windows11 on unsupported hardware

#Windows11 installation typically requires a "compatible 64-bit CPU" and TPM 2.0 chip, leaving older computers ineligible. Nevertheless, various methods have emerged to bypass these constraints.

#Neowin highlights a more straightforward approach. On X (formerly Twitter), a user revealed an obscure yet effective method for circumventing Windows 11's hardware restrictions. It involves initiating the Windows 11 setup process using the Windows command line tool with the command "/product server." So, your command should appear as follows:

setup /product server

This discovery is being hailed as a "game-changing find" that overcomes the "artificial prerequisites" for Windows 11 installation. We can confirm its efficacy, at least with the current Canary Insider versions of #Windows11. Interestingly, while the setup indicates "Windows Server" installation, it essentially installs Windows 11 Home or Windows 11 Pro.

Notably, the post's comments mention that a Vietnamese user uncovered this method over a year ago. However, the information remained relatively obscure, likely due to it being reported solely in a Vietnamese forum.

Unable to boot into #Windows after installing #Ubuntu #Linux

If you're unable to boot into Windows 11 after installing Ubuntu 23.10, it's likely a boot loader issue. Here's what you can do to potentially resolve the problem:

1. Access UEFI/BIOS Settings:

Restart your computer and access the UEFI or BIOS settings. The key to access these settings varies (common keys include F2, F12, Del, or Esc), so check your computer's manual or the screen during startup for the specific key.

2. Check Boot Order:

Once in the UEFI/BIOS settings, navigate to the boot order or boot priority section. Ensure that your Windows boot manager is listed as the first boot option.

3. Reinstall or Repair GRUB:

If Ubuntu's GRUB bootloader has taken over and Windows 11 isn't listed as an option, you may need to repair or reinstall GRUB. You can do this by booting into Ubuntu from a live USB, opening a terminal, and running commands like `sudo update-grub` or using tools like Boot-Repair.

4. Use Boot Repair:

Boot-Repair is a tool designed to fix boot issues in Ubuntu. You can use it to repair the boot menu and make sure both Windows and Ubuntu are detected. Instructions can be found here: https://help.ubuntu.com/community/Boot-Repair

5. Check Disk Partitions:

It's possible that your Windows partition has been overwritten or modified during the Ubuntu installation. You can use the `fdisk -l` command to list partitions and check if your Windows partition is intact.

6. Boot from a Windows Installation USB:

If all else fails, you might need to use a Windows installation USB to repair the Windows boot loader. Boot from the USB, select "Repair your computer," and use the command prompt to run `bootrec /fixboot` and `bootrec /fixmbr` commands. This should rebuild the Windows boot loader.

7. Back Up Data:

Before making significant changes, it's a good idea to back up your important data. You can use a live Ubuntu USB to access your files and copy them to an external drive.

8. Consider Dual Boot Options:

In the future, you might want to consider setting up dual boot configurations using virtualization or using separate hard drives or SSDs for each operating system. This can help prevent boot loader issues.

Remember that the process of recovering from boot issues can be a bit technical, so if you're not comfortable with these steps, you may want to seek help from a knowledgeable friend or a professional to avoid data loss and other complications.

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1. #CollaborationMadeEasy - Real-time co-authoring and online collaboration on documents with colleagues.
2. #AnywhereAccess - Access files and applications from any device with internet connectivity.
3. #IntelligentEmail - Advanced email organization, filtering, and smart inbox features.
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5. #OneDriveSync - Automatically sync and backup files to the cloud for easy access and data protection.
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8. #AIAssistance - Artificial Intelligence-powered features for spelling suggestions, grammar checks, and content insights.
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11. #DataInsights - Data analysis and visualization with Microsoft Excel's powerful tools.
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13. #NotebookOrganization - Organize ideas and information with digital notebooks in OneNote.
14. #PlannerOrganization - Simplify project management with Microsoft Planner for task tracking and collaboration.
15. #MobileProductivity - Seamless productivity on the go with Microsoft mobile apps for Android and iOS.